Currently it is IMO not possible to override the filename of an extracted css, by defining an extractCSS object in the vue.config.js.
The object itself would be already used here:
https://github.com/vuejs/vue-cli/blob/e65110f3f6c27ce79d6027fa6abc3d7c930d64ea/packages/%40vue/cli-service/lib/config/css.js#L106
but is not allowed by the schema, defined in options.js of the parent dir.
Add extractCSS: joi.object() to the schema definition inside cli-service/lib/options.js
Meanwhile I found a way (thank to @eliperelman) to do this with help of the chainWebpack inside my vue.config.js:
chainWebpack: config => {
    config
        .when(process.env.NODE_ENV === 'production', plugin => {
            plugin.plugin('extract-css').tap(([options, ...args]) => [
                Object.assign({}, options, { filename: 'Css/[name].css' }),
                ...args
            ])
        })
},
@mediaessenz How to use the options.publicPath of extractCss?
Most helpful comment
Meanwhile I found a way (thank to @eliperelman) to do this with help of the chainWebpack inside my vue.config.js: